Implement Pkl binary renderer and parser (#1203)

Implements a binary renderer for Pkl values, which is a lossless capturing of Pkl data. This follows the pkl binary format that is already used with `pkl server` calls, and is made available as a Java API and also an in-language API. Also, introduces a binary parser into the corresponding `PObject` types in Java.
2026-03-28 11:51:58 +01:00 · 2025-10-20 09:10:22 -07:00
parent c602dbb84c
commit 6c036bf82a
298 changed files with 4236 additions and 2581 deletions
--- a/docs/modules/bindings-specification/pages/binary-encoding.adoc
+++ b/docs/modules/bindings-specification/pages/binary-encoding.adoc
@@ -36,7 +36,9 @@ For example, value `8` gets encoded as MessagePack `int8` format.
 == Non-primitives

 All non-primitive values are encoded as MessagePack arrays.
-The first slot of the array designates the value's type. The remaining slots have fixed meanings depending on the type.
+The first slot of the array designates the value's type.
+The remaining slots have fixed meanings depending on the type.
+Additional slots may be added to types in future Pkl releases. Decoders *must* be designed to defensively discard values beyond the number of known slots for a type or provide meaningful error messages.

 The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{uri-stdlib-List}[List] is encoded as an MessagePack array with two elements.

@@ -46,16 +48,16 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 ||code |type |description |type |description |type |description

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Typed}[Typed], link:{uri-stdlib-Dynamic}[Dynamic]
-|`0x1`
+|`0x01`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
-|Fully qualified class name
+|<<type-name-encoding,Class name>>
 |link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
 |Enclosing module URI
 |link:{uri-messagepack-array}[array]
 |Array of <<object-members,object members>>

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Map}[Map]
-|`0x2`
+|`0x02`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-map}[map]
 |Map of `<value>` to `<value>`
 |
@@ -64,7 +66,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Mapping}[Mapping]
-|`0x3`
+|`0x03`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-map}[map]
 |Map of `<value>` to `<value>`
 |
@@ -73,7 +75,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-List}[List]
-|`0x4`
+|`0x04`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-array}[array]
 |Array of `<value>`
 |
@@ -82,7 +84,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Listing}[Listing]
-|`0x5`
+|`0x05`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-array}[array]
 |Array of `<value>`
 |
@@ -91,7 +93,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Set}[Set]
-|`0x6`
+|`0x06`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-array}[array]
 |Array of `<value>`
 |
@@ -100,7 +102,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Duration}[Duration]
-|`0x7`
+|`0x07`
 |{uri-messagepack-float}[float64]
 |Duration value
 |link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
@@ -109,7 +111,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-DataSize}[DataSize]
-|`0x8`
+|`0x08`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-float}[float64]
 |Value (float64)
 |link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
@@ -118,7 +120,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Pair}[Pair]
-|`0x9`
+|`0x09`
 |`<value>`
 |First value
 |`<value>`
@@ -127,7 +129,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-IntSeq}[IntSeq]
-|`0xA`
+|`0x0A`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-int}[int]
 |Start
 |link:{uri-messagepack-int}[int]
@@ -136,7 +138,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |Step

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Regex}[Regex]
-|`0xB`
+|`0x0B`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
 |Regex string representation
 |
@@ -145,25 +147,25 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Class}[Class]
-|`0xC`
-|
-|
-|
-|
+|`0x0C`
+|link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
+|<<type-name-encoding,Class name>>
+|link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
+|Module URI
 |
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-TypeAlias}[TypeAlias]
-|`0xD`
-|
-|
-|
-|
+|`0x0D`
+|link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
+|<<type-name-encoding,TypeAlias name>>
+|link:{uri-messagepack-str}[str]
+|Module URI
 |
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Function}[Function]
-|`0xE`
+|`0x0E`
 |
 |
 |
@@ -172,7 +174,7 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |

 |link:{uri-stdlib-Bytes}[Bytes]
-|`0xF`
+|`0x0F`
 |link:{uri-messagepack-bin}[bin]
 |Binary contents
 |
@@ -181,6 +183,19 @@ The array's length is the number of slots that are filled. For example, xref:{ur
 |
 |===

+[[type-name-encoding]]
+[NOTE]
+====
+Type names have specific encoding rules:
+
+* When the module URI is `pkl:base`:
+** If the type name is `ModuleClass`, this type represents the module class of `pkl:base`.
+** Otherwise, the type name corresponds to a type in `pkl:base`.
+* For all other module URIs:
+** When the type name contains `\#`, the string after the `#` character corresponds to a type in that module. The string before the `#` is the name of the module.
+** Otherwise, the type name is the name of the module and represents the class of the module.
+====
+
 [[object-members]]
 == Object Members

@@ -212,4 +227,3 @@ Like non-primitive values, object members are encoded as MessagePack arrays, whe
 |`<value>`
 |element value
 |===
-
--- a/pkl-commons-test/gradle.lockfile
+++ b/pkl-commons-test/gradle.lockfile
@@ -47,5 +47,6 @@ org.junit.platform:junit-platform-commons:1.14.0=apiDependenciesMetadata,compile
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-engine:1.14.0=apiDependenciesMetadata,compileClasspath,implementationDependenciesMetadata,runtimeClasspath,testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-launcher:1.14.0=testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit:junit-bom:5.14.0=apiDependenciesMetadata,compileClasspath,implementationDependenciesMetadata,runtimeClasspath,testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
+org.msgpack:msgpack-core:0.9.8=compileClasspath
 org.opentest4j:opentest4j:1.3.0=apiDependenciesMetadata,compileClasspath,implementationDependenciesMetadata,runtimeClasspath,testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
 empty=annotationProcessor,compileOnlyDependenciesMetadata,intransitiveDependenciesMetadata,kotlinCompilerPluginClasspath,kotlinNativeCompilerPluginClasspath,kotlinScriptDefExtensions,sourcesJar,testAnnotationProcessor,testApiDependenciesMetadata,testCompileOnlyDependenciesMetadata,testIntransitiveDependenciesMetadata,testKotlinScriptDefExtensions
--- a/pkl-commons-test/pkl-commons-test.gradle.kts
+++ b/pkl-commons-test/pkl-commons-test.gradle.kts
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ dependencies {
  api(libs.junitParams)
  api(projects.pklCommons) // for convenience
  implementation(libs.assertj)
+  implementation(libs.msgpack)
 }

 /**
--- a/pkl-commons-test/src/main/kotlin/org/pkl/commons/test/MessagePackDebugRenderer.kt
+++ b/pkl-commons-test/src/main/kotlin/org/pkl/commons/test/MessagePackDebugRenderer.kt
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -13,13 +13,12 @@
 * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 * limitations under the License.
 */
-package org.pkl.server
+package org.pkl.commons.test

-import java.lang.IllegalStateException
+import java.util.*
 import org.msgpack.core.MessagePack
 import org.msgpack.core.MessageUnpacker
 import org.msgpack.value.ValueType
-import org.pkl.core.util.yaml.YamlEmitter

 /** Renders MessagePack structures in YAML. */
 class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
@@ -27,7 +26,6 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
  private val currIndent = StringBuilder("")
  private val sb = StringBuilder()
  private val indent = "  "
-  private val yamlEmitter = YamlEmitter.create(sb, "1.2", indent)

  private fun incIndent() {
    currIndent.append(indent)
@@ -45,7 +43,7 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
  private fun renderKey() {
    val mf = unpacker.nextFormat
    when (mf.valueType!!) {
-      ValueType.STRING -> yamlEmitter.emit(unpacker.unpackString(), currIndent, true)
+      ValueType.STRING -> emitString(unpacker.unpackString())
      ValueType.MAP,
      ValueType.ARRAY -> {
        sb.append("? ")
@@ -66,14 +64,14 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
      ValueType.FLOAT,
      ValueType.BOOLEAN,
      ValueType.NIL -> sb.append(unpacker.unpackValue().toJson())
-      ValueType.STRING -> yamlEmitter.emit(unpacker.unpackString(), currIndent, false)
+      ValueType.STRING -> emitString(unpacker.unpackString())
      ValueType.ARRAY -> {
        val size = unpacker.unpackArrayHeader()
        if (size == 0) {
          sb.append("[]")
          return
        }
-        for (i in 0 until size) {
+        repeat(size) {
          newline()
          sb.append("- ")
          incIndent()
@@ -87,7 +85,7 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
          sb.append("{}")
          return
        }
-        for (i in 0 until size) {
+        repeat(size) {
          newline()
          renderKey()
          incIndent()
@@ -95,7 +93,12 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
          decIndent()
        }
      }
-      ValueType.BINARY,
+      ValueType.BINARY -> {
+        // https://yaml.org/type/binary.html
+        sb.append("!!binary ")
+        val size = unpacker.unpackBinaryHeader()
+        emitString(Base64.getEncoder().encodeToString(unpacker.readPayload(size)))
+      }
      ValueType.EXTENSION -> throw IllegalStateException("Unexpected value type ${mf.valueType}")
    }
  }
@@ -104,4 +107,75 @@ class MessagePackDebugRenderer(bytes: ByteArray) {
    renderValue()
    sb.toString().removePrefix("\n")
  }
+
+  fun emitString(str: String) {
+    val newlineIndex = str.indexOf('\n')
+    if (newlineIndex < 0) {
+      emitSingleLineString(str)
+    } else {
+      emitMultiLineString(str, newlineIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // adapted from org.pkl.core.util.yaml.YamlEmitter.emitSingleQuotedString
+  fun emitSingleLineString(str: String) {
+    sb.append('\'')
+
+    val singleQuoteIndex = str.indexOfFirst { it == '\'' }
+    if (singleQuoteIndex == -1) {
+      sb.append(str)
+    } else {
+      var start = 0
+      val length = str.length
+      for (i in singleQuoteIndex..<length) {
+        if (str[i] == '\'') {
+          sb.append(str, start, i).append("''")
+          start = i + 1
+        }
+      }
+      if (start < length) {
+        sb.append(str, start, length)
+      }
+    }
+
+    sb.append('\'')
+  }
+
+  // adapted from org.pkl.core.util.yaml.YamlEmitter.emitSingleQuotedString
+  fun emitMultiLineString(str: String, newlineIndex: Int) {
+    currIndent.append(indent)
+
+    sb.append('|')
+    if (str.first() == ' ') {
+      sb.append(indent.length)
+    }
+
+    val length = str.length
+    if (str.last() == '\n') {
+      if (length == 1 || str[length - 2] == '\n') {
+        sb.append('+')
+      }
+    } else {
+      sb.append('-')
+    }
+
+    sb.append('\n')
+
+    var start = 0
+    for (i in newlineIndex..<length) {
+      if (str[i] != '\n') continue
+      if (i == start) {
+        // don't add leading indent before newline
+        sb.append('\n')
+      } else {
+        sb.append(currIndent).append(str, start, i + 1)
+      }
+      start = i + 1
+    }
+    if (start < length) {
+      sb.append(currIndent).append(str, start, length)
+    }
+
+    currIndent.setLength(currIndent.length - indent.length)
+  }
 }
--- a/pkl-config-java/gradle.lockfile
+++ b/pkl-config-java/gradle.lockfile
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ org.junit.platform:junit-platform-commons:1.14.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplem
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-engine:1.14.0=testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-launcher:1.14.0=testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit:junit-bom:5.14.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
-org.msgpack:msgpack-core:0.9.8=pklCodegenJava,runtimeClasspath,testRuntimeClasspath
+org.msgpack:msgpack-core:0.9.8=compileClasspath,pklCodegenJava,runtimeClasspath,testCompileClasspath,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.opentest4j:opentest4j:1.3.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.organicdesign:Paguro:3.10.3=pklCodegenJava,runtimeClasspath,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.snakeyaml:snakeyaml-engine:2.10=pklCodegenJava,runtimeClasspath,testRuntimeClasspath
--- a/pkl-config-java/pkl-config-java.gradle.kts
+++ b/pkl-config-java/pkl-config-java.gradle.kts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -82,6 +82,7 @@ dependencies {
  api(projects.pklCore)

  implementation(libs.geantyref)
+  implementation(libs.msgpack)

  testImplementation(libs.javaxInject)

--- a/pkl-config-java/src/main/java/org/pkl/config/java/Config.java
+++ b/pkl-config-java/src/main/java/org/pkl/config/java/Config.java
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,9 +15,14 @@
 */
 package org.pkl.config.java;

+import java.io.InputStream;
 import java.lang.reflect.Type;
+import java.util.Map;
 import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.ConversionException;
+import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.ValueMapper;
+import org.pkl.core.Composite;
 import org.pkl.core.Evaluator;
+import org.pkl.core.PklBinaryDecoder;

 /**
 * A root, intermediate, or leaf node in a configuration tree. Child nodes can be obtained by name
@@ -67,4 +72,51 @@ public interface Config {
   * @throws ConversionException if the value cannot be converted to the given type
   */
  <T> T as(JavaType<T> type);
+
+  /**
+   * Decode a config from the supplied byte array.
+   *
+   * @return the encoded config
+   */
+  static Config from(byte[] bytes, ValueMapper mapper) {
+    return makeConfig(PklBinaryDecoder.decode(bytes), mapper);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decode a config from the supplied byte array using a preconfigured {@link ValueMapper}.
+   *
+   * @return the encoded config
+   */
+  static Config from(byte[] bytes) {
+    return from(bytes, ValueMapper.preconfigured());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decode a config from the supplied {@link InputStream} using a preconfigured {@link
+   * ValueMapper}.
+   *
+   * @return the encoded config
+   */
+  static Config from(InputStream inputStream, ValueMapper mapper) {
+    return makeConfig(PklBinaryDecoder.decode(inputStream), mapper);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decode a config from the supplied {@link InputStream}.
+   *
+   * @return the encoded config
+   */
+  static Config from(InputStream inputStream) {
+    return from(inputStream, ValueMapper.preconfigured());
+  }
+
+  private static Config makeConfig(Object decoded, ValueMapper mapper) {
+    if (decoded instanceof Composite composite) {
+      return new CompositeConfig("", mapper, composite);
+    }
+    if (decoded instanceof Map<?, ?> map) {
+      return new MapConfig("", mapper, map);
+    }
+    return new LeafConfig("", mapper, decoded);
+  }
 }
--- a/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/AbstractConfigTest.java
+++ b/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/AbstractConfigTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.config.java;
+
+import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.*;
+
+import java.nio.file.Path;
+import java.util.List;
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.Named;
+import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.Types;
+import org.pkl.core.PObject;
+
+public abstract class AbstractConfigTest {
+
+  private final Config pigeonConfig = getPigeonConfig();
+  private final Config pigeonModuleConfig = getPigeonModuleConfig();
+  private final Config pairConfig = getPairConfig();
+  private final Config mapConfig = getMapConfig();
+
+  protected abstract Config getPigeonConfig();
+
+  protected abstract Config getPigeonModuleConfig();
+
+  protected abstract Config getPairConfig();
+
+  protected abstract Config getMapConfig();
+
+  @Test
+  public void navigate() {
+    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon");
+    assertThat(pigeon.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon");
+    assertThat(pigeon.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(PObject.class);
+
+    var address = pigeon.get("address");
+    assertThat(address.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon.address");
+    assertThat(address.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(PObject.class);
+
+    var street = address.get("street");
+    assertThat(street.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon.address.street");
+    assertThat(street.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(String.class);
+
+    assertThat(street.as(String.class)).isEqualTo("Fuzzy St.");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void navigateToNonExistingObjectChild() {
+    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon");
+    var t = catchThrowable(() -> pigeon.get("non-existing"));
+
+    assertThat(t)
+        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
+        .hasMessageStartingWith(
+            "Node `pigeon` of type `pkl.base#Dynamic` "
+                + "does not have a property named `non-existing`.");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void navigateToNonExistingMapChild() {
+    var map = mapConfig.get("x");
+    var t = catchThrowable(() -> map.get("non-existing"));
+
+    assertThat(t)
+        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
+        .hasMessageStartingWith(
+            "Node `x` of type `pkl.base#Map` does not have a key named `non-existing`.");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void navigateToNonExistingLeafChild() {
+    var age = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").get("age");
+    var t = catchThrowable(() -> age.get("non-existing"));
+
+    assertThat(t)
+        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
+        .hasMessageStartingWith(
+            "Leaf node `pigeon.age` of type `pkl.base#Int` does not have a child named `non-existing`.");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertObjectToPojoByType() {
+    Person pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").as(Person.class);
+    checkPigeon(pigeon);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertObjectToPojoByJavaType() {
+    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").as(JavaType.of(Person.class));
+    checkPigeon(pigeon);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertModuleToPojoByType() {
+    var pigeon = pigeonModuleConfig.as(Person.class);
+    checkPigeon(pigeon);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertModuleToPojoByJavaType() {
+    var pigeon = pigeonModuleConfig.as(JavaType.of(Person.class));
+    checkPigeon(pigeon);
+  }
+
+  private void checkPigeon(Person pigeon) {
+    assertThat(pigeon).isNotNull();
+    assertThat(pigeon.age).isEqualTo(30);
+    assertThat(pigeon.friends).containsExactly("john", "mary");
+    assertThat(pigeon.address.street).isEqualTo("Fuzzy St.");
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertToParameterizedTypeByType() {
+    Pair<Path, Integer> pair =
+        pairConfig.get("x").as(Types.parameterizedType(Pair.class, Path.class, Integer.class));
+    checkPair(pair);
+  }
+
+  @Test
+  public void convertToParameterizedTypeByJavaType() {
+    var pair = pairConfig.get("x").as(new JavaType<Pair<Path, Integer>>() {});
+    checkPair(pair);
+  }
+
+  private void checkPair(Pair<?, ?> pair) {
+    assertThat(pair).isNotNull();
+    assertThat(pair.first).isEqualTo(Path.of("file/path"));
+    assertThat(pair.second).isEqualTo(42);
+  }
+
+  public static class Person {
+    final int age;
+    final List<String> friends;
+    final Address address;
+
+    public Person(
+        @Named("age") int age,
+        @Named("friends") List<String> friends,
+        @Named("address") Address address) {
+      this.age = age;
+      this.friends = friends;
+      this.address = address;
+    }
+  }
+
+  public static class Address {
+    final String street;
+
+    public Address(@Named("street") String street) {
+      this.street = street;
+    }
+  }
+
+  public static class Pair<S, T> {
+    final S first;
+    final T second;
+
+    public Pair(@Named("first") S first, @Named("second") T second) {
+      this.first = first;
+      this.second = second;
+    }
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/ConfigPklBinaryDecoderTest.java
+++ b/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/ConfigPklBinaryDecoderTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.config.java;
+
+import java.util.Base64;
+
+public class ConfigPklBinaryDecoderTest extends AbstractConfigTest {
+  // generate via: pbpaste | ./pkl-cli/build/executable/jpkl eval /dev/stdin -f pkl-binary | base64
+
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPigeonConfig() {
+    // pigeon { age = 30; friends = List("john", "mary"); address { street = "Fuzzy St." } }
+    return Config.from(
+        Base64.getDecoder()
+            .decode(
+                "lAGkdGVzdNklZmlsZTovLy9Vc2Vycy9qYmFzY2gvc3JjL3BrbC90ZXN0LnBrbJGTEKZwaWdlb26UAadEeW5hbWljqHBrbDpiYXNlk5MQo2FnZR6TEKdmcmllbmRzkgSSpGpvaG6kbWFyeZMQp2FkZHJlc3OUAadEeW5hbWljqHBrbDpiYXNlkZMQpnN0cmVldKlGdXp6eSBTdC4="));
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPigeonModuleConfig() {
+    // age = 30; friends = List("john", "mary"); address { street = "Fuzzy St." }
+    return Config.from(
+        Base64.getDecoder()
+            .decode(
+                "lAGlc3RkaW6xZmlsZTovLy9kZXYvc3RkaW6TkxCjYWdlHpMQp2ZyaWVuZHOSBJKkam9obqRtYXJ5kxCnYWRkcmVzc5QBp0R5bmFtaWOocGtsOmJhc2WRkxCmc3RyZWV0qUZ1enp5IFN0Lg=="));
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPairConfig() {
+    // x { first = "file/path"; second = 42 }
+    return Config.from(
+        Base64.getDecoder()
+            .decode(
+                "lAGlc3RkaW6xZmlsZTovLy9kZXYvc3RkaW6RkxCheJQBp0R5bmFtaWOocGtsOmJhc2WSkxClZmlyc3SpZmlsZS9wYXRokxCmc2Vjb25kKg=="));
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Config getMapConfig() {
+    // x = Map("one", 1, "two", 2)
+    return Config.from(
+        Base64.getDecoder().decode("lAGlc3RkaW6xZmlsZTovLy9kZXYvc3RkaW6RkxCheJICgqNvbmUBo3R3bwI="));
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/ConfigTest.java
+++ b/pkl-config-java/src/test/java/org/pkl/config/java/ConfigTest.java
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -15,164 +15,31 @@
 */
 package org.pkl.config.java;

-import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.*;
 import static org.pkl.core.ModuleSource.text;

-import java.nio.file.Path;
-import java.util.List;
-import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
-import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.Named;
-import org.pkl.config.java.mapper.Types;
-import org.pkl.core.PObject;
+public class ConfigTest extends AbstractConfigTest {
+  private static final ConfigEvaluator evaluator = ConfigEvaluator.preconfigured();

-public class ConfigTest {
-  private final ConfigEvaluator evaluator = ConfigEvaluator.preconfigured();
-
-  private final Config pigeonConfig =
-      evaluator.evaluate(
-          text(
-              "pigeon { age = 30; friends = List(\"john\", \"mary\"); address { street = \"Fuzzy St.\" } }"));
-
-  private final Config pigeonModuleConfig =
-      evaluator.evaluate(
-          text("age = 30; friends = List(\"john\", \"mary\"); address { street = \"Fuzzy St.\" }"));
-
-  private final Config pairConfig =
-      evaluator.evaluate(text("x { first = \"file/path\"; second = 42 }"));
-
-  private final Config mapConfig = evaluator.evaluate(text("x = Map(\"one\", 1, \"two\", 2)"));
-
-  @Test
-  public void navigate() {
-    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon");
-    assertThat(pigeon.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon");
-    assertThat(pigeon.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(PObject.class);
-
-    var address = pigeon.get("address");
-    assertThat(address.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon.address");
-    assertThat(address.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(PObject.class);
-
-    var street = address.get("street");
-    assertThat(street.getQualifiedName()).isEqualTo("pigeon.address.street");
-    assertThat(street.getRawValue()).isInstanceOf(String.class);
-
-    assertThat(street.as(String.class)).isEqualTo("Fuzzy St.");
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPigeonConfig() {
+    return evaluator.evaluate(
+        text(
+            "pigeon { age = 30; friends = List(\"john\", \"mary\"); address { street = \"Fuzzy St.\" } }"));
  }

-  @Test
-  public void navigateToNonExistingObjectChild() {
-    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon");
-    var t = catchThrowable(() -> pigeon.get("non-existing"));
-
-    assertThat(t)
-        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
-        .hasMessageStartingWith(
-            "Node `pigeon` of type `pkl.base#Dynamic` "
-                + "does not have a property named `non-existing`.");
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPigeonModuleConfig() {
+    return evaluator.evaluate(
+        text("age = 30; friends = List(\"john\", \"mary\"); address { street = \"Fuzzy St.\" }"));
  }

-  @Test
-  public void navigateToNonExistingMapChild() {
-    var map = mapConfig.get("x");
-    var t = catchThrowable(() -> map.get("non-existing"));
-
-    assertThat(t)
-        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
-        .hasMessageStartingWith(
-            "Node `x` of type `pkl.base#Map` does not have a key named `non-existing`.");
+  @Override
+  protected Config getPairConfig() {
+    return evaluator.evaluate(text("x { first = \"file/path\"; second = 42 }"));
  }

-  @Test
-  public void navigateToNonExistingLeafChild() {
-    var age = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").get("age");
-    var t = catchThrowable(() -> age.get("non-existing"));
-
-    assertThat(t)
-        .isInstanceOf(NoSuchChildException.class)
-        .hasMessageStartingWith(
-            "Leaf node `pigeon.age` of type `pkl.base#Int` does not have a child named `non-existing`.");
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertObjectToPojoByType() {
-    Person pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").as(Person.class);
-    checkPigeon(pigeon);
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertObjectToPojoByJavaType() {
-    var pigeon = pigeonConfig.get("pigeon").as(JavaType.of(Person.class));
-    checkPigeon(pigeon);
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertModuleToPojoByType() {
-    var pigeon = pigeonModuleConfig.as(Person.class);
-    checkPigeon(pigeon);
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertModuleToPojoByJavaType() {
-    var pigeon = pigeonModuleConfig.as(JavaType.of(Person.class));
-    checkPigeon(pigeon);
-  }
-
-  private void checkPigeon(Person pigeon) {
-    assertThat(pigeon).isNotNull();
-    assertThat(pigeon.age).isEqualTo(30);
-    assertThat(pigeon.friends).containsExactly("john", "mary");
-    assertThat(pigeon.address.street).isEqualTo("Fuzzy St.");
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertToParameterizedTypeByType() {
-    Pair<Path, Integer> pair =
-        pairConfig.get("x").as(Types.parameterizedType(Pair.class, Path.class, Integer.class));
-    checkPair(pair);
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void convertToParameterizedTypeByJavaType() {
-    var pair = pairConfig.get("x").as(new JavaType<Pair<Path, Integer>>() {});
-    checkPair(pair);
-  }
-
-  private void checkPair(Pair<?, ?> pair) {
-    assertThat(pair).isNotNull();
-    assertThat(pair.first).isEqualTo(Path.of("file/path"));
-    assertThat(pair.second).isEqualTo(42);
-  }
-
-  public static class Person {
-    final int age;
-    final List<String> friends;
-    final Address address;
-
-    public Person(
-        @Named("age") int age,
-        @Named("friends") List<String> friends,
-        @Named("address") Address address) {
-      this.age = age;
-      this.friends = friends;
-      this.address = address;
-    }
-  }
-
-  public static class Address {
-    final String street;
-
-    public Address(@Named("street") String street) {
-      this.street = street;
-    }
-  }
-
-  public static class Pair<S, T> {
-    final S first;
-    final T second;
-
-    public Pair(@Named("first") S first, @Named("second") T second) {
-      this.first = first;
-      this.second = second;
-    }
+  @Override
+  protected Config getMapConfig() {
+    return evaluator.evaluate(text("x = Map(\"one\", 1, \"two\", 2)"));
  }
 }
--- a/pkl-config-kotlin/gradle.lockfile
+++ b/pkl-config-kotlin/gradle.lockfile
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ org.junit.platform:junit-platform-commons:1.14.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplem
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-engine:1.14.0=testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit.platform:junit-platform-launcher:1.14.0=testRuntimeClasspath
 org.junit:junit-bom:5.14.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
-org.msgpack:msgpack-core:0.9.8=pklCodegenKotlin,testRuntimeClasspath
+org.msgpack:msgpack-core:0.9.8=compileClasspath,pklCodegenKotlin,pklConfigJava,runtimeClasspath,testCompileClasspath,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.opentest4j:opentest4j:1.3.0=testCompileClasspath,testImplementationDependenciesMetadata,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.organicdesign:Paguro:3.10.3=pklCodegenKotlin,testRuntimeClasspath
 org.snakeyaml:snakeyaml-engine:2.10=pklCodegenKotlin,testRuntimeClasspath
--- a/pkl-config-kotlin/pkl-config-kotlin.gradle.kts
+++ b/pkl-config-kotlin/pkl-config-kotlin.gradle.kts
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ val buildInfo = project.extensions.getByType<BuildInfo>()
 dependencies {
  pklCodegenKotlin(projects.pklCodegenKotlin)
  implementation(libs.kotlinReflect)
+  implementation(libs.msgpack)

  // Don't declare a runtime dependency to pkl-config-java because Gradle cannot resolve
  // the correct publication (library vs fatJar) when generating the POM.
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/Evaluator.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/Evaluator.java
@@ -172,6 +172,15 @@ public interface Evaluator extends AutoCloseable {
   */
  Object evaluateExpression(ModuleSource moduleSource, String expression);

+  /**
+   * Evaluates the Pkl expression represented as {@code expression}, returning a byte array of the
+   * <code>pkl-binary</code>-encoded representation of the result.
+   *
+   * @throws PklException if an error occurs during evaluation
+   * @throws IllegalStateException if this evaluator has already been closed
+   */
+  byte[] evaluateExpressionPklBinary(ModuleSource moduleSource, String expression);
+
  /**
   * Evaluates the Pkl expression, returning the stringified result.
   *
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/EvaluatorImpl.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/EvaluatorImpl.java
@@ -28,6 +28,8 @@ import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
 import java.util.function.Function;
 import java.util.function.Supplier;
 import org.graalvm.polyglot.Context;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageBufferPacker;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessagePack;
 import org.pkl.core.ast.ConstantValueNode;
 import org.pkl.core.ast.internal.ToStringNodeGen;
 import org.pkl.core.evaluatorSettings.TraceMode;
@@ -48,6 +50,7 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmExceptionBuilder;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmLanguage;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmMapping;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmNull;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmPklBinaryEncoder;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmStackOverflowException;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
@@ -56,17 +59,18 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValueRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.util.ErrorMessages;
 import org.pkl.core.util.Nullable;

-public class EvaluatorImpl implements Evaluator {
-  protected final StackFrameTransformer frameTransformer;
-  protected final boolean color;
-  protected final ModuleResolver moduleResolver;
-  protected final Context polyglotContext;
-  protected final @Nullable Duration timeout;
-  protected final @Nullable ScheduledExecutorService timeoutExecutor;
-  protected final SecurityManager securityManager;
-  protected final BufferedLogger logger;
-  protected final PackageResolver packageResolver;
+public final class EvaluatorImpl implements Evaluator {
+  private final StackFrameTransformer frameTransformer;
+  private final boolean color;
+  private final ModuleResolver moduleResolver;
+  private final Context polyglotContext;
+  private final @Nullable Duration timeout;
+  private final @Nullable ScheduledExecutorService timeoutExecutor;
+  private final SecurityManager securityManager;
+  private final BufferedLogger logger;
+  private final PackageResolver packageResolver;
  private final VmValueRenderer vmValueRenderer = VmValueRenderer.singleLine(1000);
+  private @Nullable MessageBufferPacker messagePacker;

  public EvaluatorImpl(
      StackFrameTransformer transformer,
@@ -217,6 +221,37 @@ public class EvaluatorImpl implements Evaluator {
    };
  }

+  private MessageBufferPacker getMessagePacker() {
+    if (messagePacker == null) {
+      messagePacker = MessagePack.newDefaultBufferPacker();
+    }
+    messagePacker.clear();
+    return messagePacker;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public byte[] evaluateExpressionPklBinary(ModuleSource moduleSource, String expression) {
+    return doEvaluate(
+        moduleSource,
+        (module) -> {
+          var expressionResult =
+              switch (expression) {
+                case "module" -> module;
+                case "output.text" -> VmUtils.readTextProperty(readModuleOutput(module));
+                case "output.value" ->
+                    VmUtils.readMember(readModuleOutput(module), Identifier.VALUE);
+                case "output.bytes" -> VmUtils.readBytesProperty(readModuleOutput(module));
+                default ->
+                    VmUtils.evaluateExpression(module, expression, securityManager, moduleResolver);
+              };
+          VmValue.force(expressionResult, false);
+
+          var packer = getMessagePacker();
+          new VmPklBinaryEncoder(packer).renderDocument(expressionResult);
+          return packer.toByteArray();
+        });
+  }
+
  @Override
  public String evaluateExpressionString(ModuleSource moduleSource, String expression) {
    // optimization: if the expression is `output.text` (the common case), read members
@@ -363,7 +398,7 @@ public class EvaluatorImpl implements Evaluator {
    return evalResult;
  }

-  protected <T> T doEvaluate(ModuleSource moduleSource, Function<VmTyped, T> doEvaluate) {
+  private <T> T doEvaluate(ModuleSource moduleSource, Function<VmTyped, T> doEvaluate) {
    return doEvaluate(
        () -> {
          var moduleKey = moduleResolver.resolve(moduleSource);
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/PklBinaryDecoder.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/PklBinaryDecoder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core;
+
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.io.InputStream;
+import java.io.UncheckedIOException;
+import java.net.URI;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.regex.Pattern;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessagePack;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageUnpacker;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.BaseModule;
+import org.pkl.core.util.CollectionUtils;
+import org.pkl.core.util.pklbinary.AbstractPklBinaryDecoder;
+
+/**
+ * A decoder/parser for <code>pkl-binary</code>.
+ *
+ * <p>For how pkl-binary turns Java, see {@link Value}.
+ */
+public class PklBinaryDecoder extends AbstractPklBinaryDecoder {
+
+  private PklBinaryDecoder(MessageUnpacker unpacker) {
+    super(unpacker);
+  }
+
+  /** Decode a value from the supplied byte array. */
+  public static Object decode(byte[] bytes) {
+    return new PklBinaryDecoder(MessagePack.newDefaultUnpacker(bytes)).decode();
+  }
+
+  /** Decode a value from the supplied {@link InputStream}. */
+  public static Object decode(InputStream inputStream) {
+    return new PklBinaryDecoder(MessagePack.newDefaultUnpacker(inputStream)).decode();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected RuntimeException doFail(Exception cause, long offset, List<String> path) {
+    return new RuntimeException(
+        String.format(
+            "Exception while decoding binary data at offset %d, path [%s]",
+            offset, String.join(", ", path)),
+        cause);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected RuntimeException doIOFail(IOException cause) {
+    return new UncheckedIOException("IO exception during decoding", cause);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeNull() {
+    return PNull.getInstance();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeDuration(double value, DurationUnit unit) {
+    return new Duration(value, unit);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeObject(
+      String className, URI moduleUri, DecodeIterator<DecodedObjectMember> iter) {
+    var properties = CollectionUtils.<String, Object>newLinkedHashMap(iter.getSize());
+    while (iter.hasNext()) {
+      var member = iter.next();
+      properties.put(member.key().toString(), member.value());
+    }
+
+    if (moduleUri.equals(PClassInfo.pklBaseUri)) {
+      // dynamic
+      if (className.equals(BaseModule.getDynamicClass().getDisplayName())) {
+        return new PObject(PClassInfo.Dynamic, properties);
+      }
+
+      // pkl:base typed
+      if (!className.equals(BaseModule.getModule().getVmClass().getDisplayName())) {
+        return new PObject(PClassInfo.get("pkl.base", className, moduleUri), properties);
+      }
+      // fall through to module case
+    }
+
+    // module
+    var hashIndex = className.lastIndexOf("#");
+    if (hashIndex < 0) {
+      return new PModule(
+          moduleUri, className, PClassInfo.get(className, "ModuleClass", moduleUri), properties);
+    }
+
+    // non-pkl:base class
+    return new PObject(
+        PClassInfo.get(
+            className.substring(0, hashIndex), className.substring(hashIndex + 1), moduleUri),
+        properties);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeMap(MapDecodeIterator iter) {
+    var map = CollectionUtils.newLinkedHashMap(iter.getSize());
+    while (iter.hasNext()) {
+      var entry = iter.next();
+      map.put(entry.getFirst(), entry.getSecond());
+    }
+    return map;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeMapping(MapDecodeIterator iter) {
+    return doDecodeMap(iter); // same exported result!
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeList(CollectionDecodeIterator iter) {
+    var listing = new ArrayList<>(iter.getSize());
+    while (iter.hasNext()) {
+      listing.add(iter.next());
+    }
+    return listing;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeListing(CollectionDecodeIterator iter) {
+    return doDecodeList(iter); // same exported result!
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeSet(CollectionDecodeIterator iter) {
+    var set = CollectionUtils.newLinkedHashSet(iter.getSize());
+    while (iter.hasNext()) {
+      set.add(iter.next());
+    }
+    return set;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeDataSize(double value, DataSizeUnit unit) {
+    return new DataSize(value, unit);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodePair(Object first, Object second) {
+    return new Pair<>(first, second);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeIntSeq(long start, long end, long step) {
+    throw new DecodeException("Cannot decode IntSeq value");
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeRegex(Pattern pattern) {
+    return pattern;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeClass(String qualifiedName, URI moduleUri) {
+    throw new DecodeException("Cannot decode Class value");
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeTypeAlias(String qualifiedName, URI moduleUri) {
+    throw new DecodeException("Cannot decode TypeAlias value");
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Object doDecodeBytes(byte[] bytes) {
+    return bytes;
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/TypeAlias.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/TypeAlias.java
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ public final class TypeAlias extends Member implements Value {

  /**
   * Returns the name of the module that this type alias is declared in. Note that a module name is
-   * not guaranteed to be unique, especially if it not declared but inferred from the module URI.
+   * not guaranteed to be unique, especially if it is not declared but inferred from the module URI.
   */
  public String getModuleName() {
    return moduleName;
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/Identifier.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/Identifier.java
@@ -143,6 +143,9 @@ public final class Identifier implements Comparable<Identifier> {
  // members of pkl.yaml
  public static final Identifier MAX_COLLECTION_ALIASES = get("maxCollectionAliases");

+  // members of pkl.encoding
+  public static final Identifier IMPORTS = get("imports");
+
  // common in lambdas etc
  public static final Identifier IT = get("it");

--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/ModuleCache.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/ModuleCache.java
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
@@ -92,6 +92,8 @@ public final class ModuleCache {
          return BaseModule.getModule();
        case "Benchmark":
          return BenchmarkModule.getModule();
+        case "pklbinary":
+          return PklBinaryModule.getModule();
        case "jsonnet":
          return JsonnetModule.getModule();
        case "math":
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/PklBinaryModule.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/PklBinaryModule.java
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.runtime;
+
+import java.net.URI;
+
+public class PklBinaryModule extends StdLibModule {
+  private static final VmTyped instance = VmUtils.createEmptyModule();
+
+  static {
+    loadModule(URI.create("pkl:pklbinary"), instance);
+  }
+
+  public static VmTyped getModule() {
+    return instance;
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmPklBinaryEncoder.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmPklBinaryEncoder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,376 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.runtime;
+
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageBufferPacker;
+import org.pkl.core.PklBugException;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
+import org.pkl.core.util.pklbinary.PklBinaryCode;
+
+/** An encoder/renderer for <code>pkl-binary</code></a> encoding. */
+public class VmPklBinaryEncoder extends AbstractRenderer {
+
+  // this type explicitly works with MessageBufferPacker:
+  // * assumes no I/O during packing (in-memory writes only)
+  // * IOExceptions are caught and assumed unreachable
+
+  private final MessageBufferPacker packer;
+
+  public VmPklBinaryEncoder(MessageBufferPacker packer, PklConverter converter) {
+    super("pkl-binary", converter, false, false);
+    this.packer = packer;
+  }
+
+  public VmPklBinaryEncoder(MessageBufferPacker packer) {
+    this(packer, new PklConverter(VmMapping.empty()));
+  }
+
+  private void packCode(PklBinaryCode code) throws IOException {
+    packer.packByte(code.getCode());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitString(String value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packString(value);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitBoolean(Boolean value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packBoolean(value);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitInt(Long value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packLong(value);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitFloat(Double value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packDouble(value);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitDuration(VmDuration value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.DURATION);
+      packer.packDouble(value.getValue());
+      packer.packString(value.getUnit().toString());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitDataSize(VmDataSize value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.DATASIZE);
+      packer.packDouble(value.getValue());
+      packer.packString(value.getUnit().toString());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitBytes(VmBytes value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(2);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.BYTES);
+      packer.packBinaryHeader(value.getBytes().length);
+      packer.addPayload(value.getBytes());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitIntSeq(VmIntSeq value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(4);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.INTSEQ);
+      packer.packLong(value.start);
+      packer.packLong(value.end);
+      packer.packLong(value.step);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitDocument(Object value) {
+    visit(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitTopLevelValue(Object value) {
+    visit(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitRenderDirective(VmTyped value) {
+    try {
+      packer.writePayload(VmUtils.readBytesProperty(value).getBytes());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startDynamic(VmDynamic value) {
+    startObject(value, value.getRegularMemberCount());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startTyped(VmTyped value) {
+    startObject(value, value.getVmClass().getAllRegularPropertyNames().size());
+  }
+
+  private void startObject(VmObjectLike value, int memberCount) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(4);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.OBJECT);
+      packer.packString(value.getVmClass().getDisplayName());
+      packer.packString(
+          value.getVmClass().getModule().getModuleInfo().getModuleKey().getUri().toString());
+      packer.packArrayHeader(memberCount);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private void startList(PklBinaryCode code, int length) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(2);
+      packCode(code);
+      packer.packArrayHeader(length);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  private void startMap(PklBinaryCode code, int length) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(2);
+      packCode(code);
+      packer.packMapHeader(length);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startListing(VmListing value) {
+    startList(PklBinaryCode.LISTING, value.getLength());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startMapping(VmMapping value) {
+    startMap(PklBinaryCode.MAPPING, (int) value.getLength());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startList(VmList value) {
+    startList(PklBinaryCode.LIST, value.getLength());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startSet(VmSet value) {
+    startList(PklBinaryCode.SET, value.getLength());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void startMap(VmMap value) {
+    startMap(PklBinaryCode.MAP, value.getLength());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitEntryKeyValue(
+      Object key, boolean isFirst, Deque<Object> valuePath, Object value) {
+    if (enclosingValue instanceof VmDynamic) {
+      try {
+        packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+        packCode(PklBinaryCode.ENTRY);
+      } catch (IOException e) {
+        throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+      }
+    }
+
+    super.visitEntryKeyValue(key, isFirst, valuePath, value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitElement(long index, Object value, boolean isFirst) {
+    if (enclosingValue instanceof VmDynamic) {
+      try {
+        packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+        packCode(PklBinaryCode.ELEMENT);
+        packer.packLong(index);
+      } catch (IOException e) {
+        throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+      }
+    }
+    visit(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitProperty(Identifier name, Object value, boolean isFirst) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.PROPERTY);
+      packer.packString(name.toString());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+    visit(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitClass(VmClass value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.CLASS);
+      packer.packString(value.getDisplayName());
+      packer.packString(value.getModule().getModuleInfo().getModuleKey().getUri().toString());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitTypeAlias(VmTypeAlias value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.TYPEALIAS);
+      packer.packString(value.getDisplayName());
+      packer.packString(value.getModuleUri().toString());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitPair(VmPair value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(3);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.PAIR);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+    visit(value.getFirst());
+    visit(value.getSecond());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitRegex(VmRegex value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(2);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.REGEX);
+      packer.packString(value.getPattern().pattern());
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitNull(VmNull value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packNil();
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitFunction(VmFunction value) {
+    try {
+      packer.packArrayHeader(1);
+      packCode(PklBinaryCode.FUNCTION);
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw PklBugException.unreachableCode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitEntryKey(Object key, boolean isFirst) {
+    visit(key);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void visitEntryValue(Object value) {
+    visit(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endDynamic(VmDynamic value, boolean isEmpty) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endTyped(VmTyped value, boolean isEmpty) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endListing(VmListing value, boolean isEmpty) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endMapping(VmMapping value, boolean isEmpty) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endList(VmList value) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endSet(VmSet value) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void endMap(VmMap value) {
+    // noop
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean canRenderPropertyOrEntryOf(VmDynamic object) {
+    return true;
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmTypeAlias.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmTypeAlias.java
@@ -19,10 +19,12 @@ import com.oracle.truffle.api.CompilerDirectives.TruffleBoundary;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.frame.Frame;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.frame.MaterializedFrame;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.source.SourceSection;
+import java.net.URI;
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.List;
 import javax.annotation.concurrent.GuardedBy;
 import org.pkl.core.Member.SourceLocation;
+import org.pkl.core.PClassInfo;
 import org.pkl.core.PObject;
 import org.pkl.core.TypeAlias;
 import org.pkl.core.TypeParameter;
@@ -140,6 +142,10 @@ public final class VmTypeAlias extends VmValue {
    return module.getVmClass().getModuleName();
  }

+  public URI getModuleUri() {
+    return module.getVmClass().getPClassInfo().getModuleUri();
+  }
+
  public VmTyped getModuleMirror() {
    return module.getModuleInfo().getMirror(module);
  }
@@ -152,6 +158,12 @@ public final class VmTypeAlias extends VmValue {
    return qualifiedName;
  }

+  public String getDisplayName() {
+    // display `UInt` rather than `pkl.base#UInt`, etc.
+    // based on PClassInfo.getDisplayName
+    return getModuleUri().equals(PClassInfo.pklBaseUri) ? simpleName : qualifiedName;
+  }
+
  public int getTypeParameterCount() {
    return typeParameters.size();
  }
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmTyped.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmTyped.java
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 /*
- * Copyright © 2024 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
 *
 * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmUtils.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/runtime/VmUtils.java
@@ -406,14 +406,6 @@ public final class VmUtils {
    return isCustomThisScope ? new CustomThisNode(sourceSection) : new ThisNode(sourceSection);
  }

-  public static boolean isRenderDirective(VmValue value) {
-    return value.getVmClass() == BaseModule.getRenderDirectiveClass();
-  }
-
-  public static boolean isRenderDirective(Object value) {
-    return value instanceof VmTyped typed && isRenderDirective(typed);
-  }
-
  public static boolean isPcfRenderDirective(Object value) {
    return value instanceof VmTyped typed
        && typed.getVmClass().getPClassInfo() == PClassInfo.PcfRenderDirective;
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/AbstractRenderer.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/AbstractRenderer.java
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import com.oracle.truffle.api.source.SourceSection;
 import java.util.ArrayDeque;
 import java.util.Deque;
 import java.util.List;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.BaseModule;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.Identifier;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmClass;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmCollection;
@@ -35,7 +36,6 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmSet;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTypeAlias;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUndefinedValueException;
-import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValue;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValueConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValueVisitor;
@@ -43,18 +43,11 @@ import org.pkl.core.util.LateInit;
 import org.pkl.core.util.MutableBoolean;
 import org.pkl.core.util.Nullable;

-/** Base class for renderers that are part of the standard library. */
 public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {
-  protected static final char LINE_BREAK = '\n';

  /** The name of this renderer. */
  protected final String name;

-  protected final StringBuilder builder;
-
-  /** The indent to be used. */
-  protected final String indent;
-
  protected final PklConverter converter;

  /** Whether to skip visiting properties with null value (after conversion). */
@@ -65,33 +58,31 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {

  @LateInit protected Deque<Object> currPath;

-  /** The value directly enclosing the currently visited value, if any. */
-  protected @Nullable VmValue enclosingValue;
-
  /** The value passed to either {@link #renderDocument(Object)} or {@link #renderValue(Object)}. */
  @LateInit private Object topLevelValue;

-  /** The current indent. Modified by {@link #increaseIndent()} and {@link #decreaseIndent()}. */
-  protected final StringBuilder currIndent = new StringBuilder();
+  /** The value directly enclosing the currently visited value, if any. */
+  protected @Nullable VmValue enclosingValue;

  /** The (closest) {@link SourceSection} of the value being visited, for better error messages. */
  protected @Nullable SourceSection currSourceSection = null;

-  public AbstractRenderer(
-      String name,
-      StringBuilder builder,
-      String indent,
-      PklConverter converter,
-      boolean skipNullProperties,
-      boolean skipNullEntries) {
+  protected AbstractRenderer(
+      String name, PklConverter converter, boolean skipNullProperties, boolean skipNullEntries) {
    this.name = name;
-    this.builder = builder;
-    this.indent = indent;
    this.converter = converter;
    this.skipNullProperties = skipNullProperties;
    this.skipNullEntries = skipNullEntries;
  }

+  protected boolean isRenderDirective(VmValue value) {
+    return value.getVmClass() == BaseModule.getRenderDirectiveClass();
+  }
+
+  protected boolean isRenderDirective(Object value) {
+    return value instanceof VmTyped typed && isRenderDirective(typed);
+  }
+
  public final void renderDocument(Object value) {
    currPath = new ArrayDeque<>();
    currPath.push(VmValueConverter.TOP_LEVEL_VALUE);
@@ -185,71 +176,22 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {

  protected abstract void endMap(VmMap value);

-  private void doVisitProperty(
-      Identifier name, Object value, SourceSection sourceSection, MutableBoolean isFirst) {
-    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
-    currSourceSection = sourceSection;
-    currPath.push(name);
-    var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, currPath);
-    if (!(skipNullProperties && convertedValue instanceof VmNull)) {
-      visitProperty(name, convertedValue, isFirst.getAndSetFalse());
-    }
-    currPath.pop();
-    currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
-  }
-
-  private void doVisitEntry(
-      Object key, Object value, @Nullable SourceSection sourceSection, MutableBoolean isFirst) {
-    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
-    if (sourceSection != null) {
-      currSourceSection = sourceSection;
-    }
-    var valuePath = currPath;
-    try {
-      var convertedKey = converter.convert(key, List.of());
-      valuePath.push(convertedKey);
-      var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, valuePath);
-      if (skipNullEntries && (convertedValue instanceof VmNull)) {
-        return;
-      }
-
-      currPath = new ArrayDeque<>();
-      visitEntryKey(convertedKey, isFirst.getAndSetFalse());
-      currPath = valuePath;
-      visitEntryValue(convertedValue);
-    } finally {
-      valuePath.pop();
-      currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
-    }
-  }
-
-  private void doVisitElement(
-      long index, Object value, @Nullable SourceSection sourceSection, boolean isFirst) {
-    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
-    if (sourceSection != null) {
-      currSourceSection = sourceSection;
-    }
-    currPath.push(index);
-    var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, currPath);
-    visitElement(index, convertedValue, isFirst);
-    currPath.pop();
-    currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
-  }
-
  @Override
  public void visitTyped(VmTyped value) {
    // value.getParent().getMember(value);
-    if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(value)) {
+    if (isRenderDirective(value)) {
      visitRenderDirective(value);
      return;
    }

+    value.force(false, false);
    startTyped(value);
+
    var prevEnclosingValue = enclosingValue;
    enclosingValue = value;
    var isFirst = new MutableBoolean(true);

-    value.forceAndIterateMemberValues(
+    value.iterateAlreadyForcedMemberValues(
        (memberKey, member, memberValue) -> {
          if (member.isClass() || member.isTypeAlias()) return true;
          assert member.isProp();
@@ -263,6 +205,7 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {

  @Override
  public final void visitDynamic(VmDynamic value) {
+    value.force(false, false);
    startDynamic(value);

    var prevEnclosingValue = enclosingValue;
@@ -270,7 +213,7 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {
    var isFirst = new MutableBoolean(true);
    var canRenderPropertyOrEntry = canRenderPropertyOrEntryOf(value);

-    value.forceAndIterateMemberValues(
+    value.iterateAlreadyForcedMemberValues(
        (memberKey, member, memberValue) -> {
          var sourceSection = member.getSourceSection();
          if (member.isProp()) {
@@ -302,12 +245,14 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {

  @Override
  public final void visitListing(VmListing value) {
+    value.force(false, false);
    startListing(value);
+
    var prevEnclosingValue = enclosingValue;
    enclosingValue = value;
    var isFirst = new MutableBoolean(true);

-    value.forceAndIterateMemberValues(
+    value.iterateAlreadyForcedMemberValues(
        (memberKey, member, memberValue) -> {
          assert member.isElement();
          doVisitElement(
@@ -321,12 +266,14 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {

  @Override
  public final void visitMapping(VmMapping value) {
+    value.force(false, false);
    startMapping(value);
+
    var prevEnclosingValue = enclosingValue;
    enclosingValue = value;
    var isFirst = new MutableBoolean(true);

-    value.forceAndIterateMemberValues(
+    value.iterateAlreadyForcedMemberValues(
        (memberKey, member, memberValue) -> {
          assert member.isEntry();
          doVisitEntry(memberKey, memberValue, member.getSourceSection(), isFirst);
@@ -379,19 +326,60 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {
    endMap(value);
  }

-  @Override
-  public final void visitTypeAlias(VmTypeAlias value) {
-    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  private void doVisitProperty(
+      Identifier name, Object value, SourceSection sourceSection, MutableBoolean isFirst) {
+    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
+    currSourceSection = sourceSection;
+    currPath.push(name);
+    var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, currPath);
+    if (!(skipNullProperties && convertedValue instanceof VmNull)) {
+      visitProperty(name, convertedValue, isFirst.getAndSetFalse());
+    }
+    currPath.pop();
+    currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
  }

-  @Override
-  public final void visitClass(VmClass value) {
-    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  private void doVisitEntry(
+      Object key, Object value, @Nullable SourceSection sourceSection, MutableBoolean isFirst) {
+    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
+    if (sourceSection != null) {
+      currSourceSection = sourceSection;
+    }
+    var valuePath = currPath;
+    try {
+      var convertedKey = converter.convert(key, List.of());
+      valuePath.push(convertedKey);
+      var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, valuePath);
+      if (skipNullEntries && (convertedValue instanceof VmNull)) {
+        return;
+      }
+
+      visitEntryKeyValue(convertedKey, isFirst.getAndSetFalse(), valuePath, convertedValue);
+    } finally {
+      valuePath.pop();
+      currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
+    }
  }

-  @Override
-  public final void visitFunction(VmFunction value) {
-    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  protected void visitEntryKeyValue(
+      Object key, boolean isFirst, Deque<Object> valuePath, Object value) {
+    currPath = new ArrayDeque<>();
+    visitEntryKey(key, isFirst);
+    currPath = valuePath;
+    visitEntryValue(value);
+  }
+
+  private void doVisitElement(
+      long index, Object value, @Nullable SourceSection sourceSection, boolean isFirst) {
+    var prevSourceSection = currSourceSection;
+    if (sourceSection != null) {
+      currSourceSection = sourceSection;
+    }
+    currPath.push(index);
+    var convertedValue = converter.convert(value, currPath);
+    visitElement(index, convertedValue, isFirst);
+    currPath.pop();
+    currSourceSection = prevSourceSection;
  }

  protected void cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(VmValue value) {
@@ -405,6 +393,21 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {
    throw builder.build();
  }

+  @Override
+  public void visitTypeAlias(VmTypeAlias value) {
+    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitClass(VmClass value) {
+    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void visitFunction(VmFunction value) {
+    cannotRenderTypeAddConverter(value);
+  }
+
  protected void cannotRenderNonStringKey(Object key) {
    assert enclosingValue != null;
    var isMap = enclosingValue instanceof VmMap;
@@ -424,12 +427,4 @@ public abstract class AbstractRenderer implements VmValueVisitor {
        .withProgramValue("Key", key)
        .build();
  }
-
-  protected void increaseIndent() {
-    currIndent.append(indent);
-  }
-
-  protected void decreaseIndent() {
-    currIndent.setLength(currIndent.length() - indent.length());
-  }
 }
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/AbstractStringRenderer.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/AbstractStringRenderer.java
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2024-2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.stdlib;
+
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmClass;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmFunction;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTypeAlias;
+
+/** Base class for renderers that are part of the standard library. */
+public abstract class AbstractStringRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  protected static final char LINE_BREAK = '\n';
+
+  protected final StringBuilder builder;
+
+  /** The indent to be used. */
+  protected final String indent;
+
+  /** The current indent. Modified by {@link #increaseIndent()} and {@link #decreaseIndent()}. */
+  protected final StringBuilder currIndent = new StringBuilder();
+
+  public AbstractStringRenderer(
+      String name,
+      StringBuilder builder,
+      String indent,
+      PklConverter converter,
+      boolean skipNullProperties,
+      boolean skipNullEntries) {
+    super(name, converter, skipNullProperties, skipNullEntries);
+    this.builder = builder;
+    this.indent = indent;
+  }
+
+  protected void increaseIndent() {
+    currIndent.append(indent);
+  }
+
+  protected void decreaseIndent() {
+    currIndent.setLength(currIndent.length() - indent.length());
+  }
+
+  // override these to mark them final
+
+  @Override
+  public final void visitTypeAlias(VmTypeAlias value) {
+    super.visitTypeAlias(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public final void visitClass(VmClass value) {
+    super.visitClass(value);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public final void visitFunction(VmFunction value) {
+    super.visitFunction(value);
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/JsonRendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/JsonRendererNodes.java
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ package org.pkl.core.stdlib.base;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.CompilerDirectives.TruffleBoundary;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.dsl.Specialization;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.*;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.json.JsonEscaper;
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ public final class JsonRendererNodes {
    return new JsonRenderer(builder, indent, converter, omitNullProperties);
  }

-  private static final class JsonRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class JsonRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    private final String separator;

    private final JsonEscaper escaper = new JsonEscaper(false);
@@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ public final class JsonRendererNodes {
        return;
      }

-      if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(key)) {
+      if (isRenderDirective(key)) {
        visitRenderDirective((VmTyped) key);
        builder.append(separator);
        return;
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PListRendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PListRendererNodes.java
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ package org.pkl.core.stdlib.base;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.CompilerDirectives.TruffleBoundary;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.dsl.Specialization;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.*;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.ArrayCharEscaper;
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ public final class PListRendererNodes {
  }

  // keep in sync with org.pkl.core.PListRenderer
-  private static final class PListRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class PListRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {

    // it's safe (though not required) to escape all the following characters in XML text nodes
    private static final ArrayCharEscaper charEscaper =
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ public final class PListRendererNodes {
        builder.append("<dict>").append(LINE_BREAK);
      }

-      if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(key)) {
+      if (isRenderDirective(key)) {
        key = VmUtils.readTextProperty(key);
      }

--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PcfRenderer.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PcfRenderer.java
@@ -34,12 +34,12 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmRegex;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmSet;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.LateInit;
 import org.pkl.parser.Lexer;

-public final class PcfRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+public final class PcfRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
  private final ValueFormatter valueFormatter;

  private boolean isDocument;
@@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ public final class PcfRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
  }

  private void visitStandaloneValue(Object value) {
-    if (value instanceof VmObjectLike && !VmUtils.isRenderDirective(value)) {
+    if (value instanceof VmObjectLike && !isRenderDirective(value)) {
      builder.append("new ");
    }
    visit(value);
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PropertiesRendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/PropertiesRendererNodes.java
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValue;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValueConverter;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.EconomicMaps;
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ public final class PropertiesRendererNodes {
    return new PropertiesRenderer(builder, omitNullProperties, restrictCharset, PklConverter);
  }

-  private static final class PropertiesRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class PropertiesRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    private final boolean restrictCharset;

    private boolean isDocument;
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ public final class PropertiesRendererNodes {
            .withProgramValue("Value", value)
            .build();
      }
-      if (!VmUtils.isRenderDirective(value)) {
+      if (!isRenderDirective(value)) {
        isDocument = true;
      }
      visit(value);
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ public final class PropertiesRendererNodes {
              || value instanceof VmTyped
              || value instanceof VmMapping
              || value instanceof VmDynamic)
-          && !VmUtils.isRenderDirective(value)) {
+          && !isRenderDirective(value)) {
        cannotRenderTypeAddConverter((VmValue) value);
      }
      isDocument = false;
@@ -303,7 +303,7 @@ public final class PropertiesRendererNodes {
                if (isFollowing.get()) {
                  builder.append('.');
                }
-                if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(path)) {
+                if (isRenderDirective(path)) {
                  builder.append(VmUtils.readTextProperty(path));
                } else {
                  builder.append(
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/YamlRendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/base/YamlRendererNodes.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmRegex;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmSet;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.MutableBoolean;
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ public final class YamlRendererNodes {
        builder, " ".repeat(indentWidth), converter, omitNullProperties, mode, isStream);
  }

-  private static final class YamlRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class YamlRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    private final boolean isStream;
    private final YamlEmitter emitter;
    private final String elementIndent;
@@ -306,7 +306,7 @@ public final class YamlRendererNodes {
        return;
      }

-      if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(key)) {
+      if (isRenderDirective(key)) {
        visitRenderDirective((VmTyped) key);
        builder.append(':');
        return;
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/jsonnet/RendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/jsonnet/RendererNodes.java
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmRegex;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmSet;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.ArrayCharEscaper;
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
    }
  }

-  private static final class Renderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class Renderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    // Pattern for object fields that we can render without any quotes.
    // From: https://jsonnet.org/ref/spec.html#lexing
    private static final Pattern ID_PATTERN = Pattern.compile("[_a-zA-Z][_a-zA-Z0-9]*");
@@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
      builder.append(memberSeparator).append(currIndent);
      if (key instanceof String string) {
        renderAsFieldName(string);
-      } else if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(key)) {
+      } else if (isRenderDirective(key)) {
        visitRenderDirective((VmTyped) key);
        builder.append(": ");
      } else {
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/pklbinary/RendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/pklbinary/RendererNodes.java
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.stdlib.pklbinary;
+
+import com.oracle.truffle.api.CompilerDirectives.TruffleBoundary;
+import com.oracle.truffle.api.dsl.Specialization;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageBufferPacker;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessagePack;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.Identifier;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmBytes;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmMapping;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmPklBinaryEncoder;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
+import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
+import org.pkl.core.util.Nullable;
+
+public final class RendererNodes {
+
+  private abstract static class RenderMethod extends ExternalMethod1Node {
+    private @Nullable MessageBufferPacker messagePacker;
+
+    protected MessageBufferPacker getMessagePacker() {
+      if (messagePacker == null) {
+        messagePacker = MessagePack.newDefaultBufferPacker();
+      }
+      messagePacker.clear();
+      return messagePacker;
+    }
+  }
+
+  public abstract static class renderDocument extends RenderMethod {
+    @Specialization
+    @TruffleBoundary
+    protected VmBytes eval(VmTyped self, Object value) {
+      var packer = getMessagePacker();
+      createRenderer(self, packer).renderDocument(value);
+      return new VmBytes(packer.toByteArray());
+    }
+  }
+
+  public abstract static class renderValue extends RenderMethod {
+    @Specialization
+    @TruffleBoundary
+    protected VmBytes eval(VmTyped self, Object value) {
+      var packer = getMessagePacker();
+      createRenderer(self, packer).renderValue(value);
+      return new VmBytes(packer.toByteArray());
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static VmPklBinaryEncoder createRenderer(VmTyped self, MessageBufferPacker packer) {
+    var converters = (VmMapping) VmUtils.readMember(self, Identifier.CONVERTERS);
+    var converter = new PklConverter(converters);
+    return new VmPklBinaryEncoder(packer, converter);
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/pklbinary/package-info.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/pklbinary/package-info.java
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+@NonnullByDefault
+package org.pkl.core.stdlib.pklbinary;
+
+import org.pkl.core.util.NonnullByDefault;
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/protobuf/RendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/protobuf/RendererNodes.java
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmSet;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmTyped;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmUtils;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.VmValue;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.ArrayCharEscaper;
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
    return new ProtobufRenderer(builder, indent, new PklConverter(converters));
  }

-  private static final class ProtobufRenderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  private static final class ProtobufRenderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    private final Deque<Identifier> propertyPath = new ArrayDeque<>();
    private final Deque<Boolean> wrapperRequirement = new ArrayDeque<>();
    private final JsonEscaper jsonEscaper = new JsonEscaper(false);
@@ -306,7 +306,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {

    @Override
    protected void visitEntryKey(Object key, boolean isFirst) {
-      var isDirective = VmUtils.isRenderDirective(key);
+      var isDirective = isRenderDirective(key);
      var isValidKey =
          isDirective || key instanceof Long || key instanceof Boolean || key instanceof String;
      if (!isValidKey) {
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/xml/RendererNodes.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/stdlib/xml/RendererNodes.java
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ package org.pkl.core.stdlib.xml;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.CompilerDirectives.TruffleBoundary;
 import com.oracle.truffle.api.dsl.Specialization;
 import org.pkl.core.runtime.*;
-import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractRenderer;
+import org.pkl.core.stdlib.AbstractStringRenderer;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.ExternalMethod1Node;
 import org.pkl.core.stdlib.PklConverter;
 import org.pkl.core.util.ArrayCharEscaper;
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
    }
  }

-  public static final class Renderer extends AbstractRenderer {
+  public static final class Renderer extends AbstractStringRenderer {
    // it's safe (though not required) to escape all the following characters in text nodes and
    // attribute values
    private static final ArrayCharEscaper stringEscaper =
@@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
          renderXmlInline((VmTyped) value);
        } else if (isContent(value)) {
          visit(value);
-        } else if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(value)) {
+        } else if (isRenderDirective(value)) {
          builder.append(VmUtils.readTextProperty(value));
        } else {
          writeXmlElement(VmUtils.getClass(value).getSimpleName(), null, value, true, true);
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ public final class RendererNodes {
      } else {
        assert deferredKey != null;
        assert enclosingValue != null;
-        if (VmUtils.isRenderDirective(deferredKey)) {
+        if (isRenderDirective(deferredKey)) {
          writeXmlElement(VmUtils.readTextProperty(deferredKey), null, value, true, false);
        } else if (deferredKey instanceof String string) {
          writeXmlElement(string, null, value, true, true);
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/AbstractPklBinaryDecoder.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/AbstractPklBinaryDecoder.java
@@ -0,0 +1,468 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.util.pklbinary;
+
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.net.URI;
+import java.util.ArrayDeque;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.Deque;
+import java.util.Formatter;
+import java.util.Iterator;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.regex.Pattern;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageInsufficientBufferException;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessagePackException;
+import org.msgpack.core.MessageUnpacker;
+import org.pkl.core.DataSizeUnit;
+import org.pkl.core.DurationUnit;
+import org.pkl.core.Pair;
+import org.pkl.core.util.LateInit;
+
+/**
+ * Base class for implementing a decoder/parser for the <a
+ * href="https://pkl-lang.org/main/current/bindings-specification/binary-encoding.html"><code>
+ * pkl-binary</code></a> encoding.
+ */
+public abstract class AbstractPklBinaryDecoder {
+  private final MessageUnpacker unpacker;
+  @LateInit protected Deque<Object> currPath;
+
+  protected AbstractPklBinaryDecoder(MessageUnpacker unpacker) {
+    this.unpacker = unpacker;
+  }
+
+  protected static class DecodeException extends RuntimeException {
+    public DecodeException(String msg, Object... args) {
+      super(new Formatter().format(msg, args).toString());
+    }
+  }
+
+  protected final Object decode() {
+    currPath = new ArrayDeque<>();
+    try {
+      try {
+        return doDecode();
+      } catch (MessageInsufficientBufferException e) {
+        throw new DecodeException("Unexpected EOF", e);
+      }
+    } catch (IOException e) {
+      throw doIOFail(e);
+    } catch (MessagePackException | DecodeException e) {
+      var path = new ArrayList<String>(currPath.size());
+      for (var iter = currPath.descendingIterator(); iter.hasNext(); ) {
+        path.add(iter.next().toString());
+      }
+      Collections.reverse(path);
+      throw doFail(e, unpacker.getTotalReadBytes(), path);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private void assertLength(PklBinaryCode type, int len, int expected) {
+    if (len < expected) {
+      throw new DecodeException(
+          "Expected %s structure to have at least %d slots, found %d", type, expected + 1, len);
+    }
+  }
+
+  protected record DecodedObjectMember(PklBinaryCode type, Object key, Object value) {}
+
+  protected abstract RuntimeException doFail(Exception cause, long offset, List<String> path);
+
+  protected abstract RuntimeException doIOFail(IOException cause);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeNull();
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeObject(
+      String className, URI moduleUri, DecodeIterator<DecodedObjectMember> iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeMap(MapDecodeIterator iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeMapping(MapDecodeIterator iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeList(CollectionDecodeIterator iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeListing(CollectionDecodeIterator iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeSet(CollectionDecodeIterator iter);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeDuration(double value, DurationUnit unit);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeDataSize(double value, DataSizeUnit unit);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodePair(Object first, Object second);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeIntSeq(long start, long end, long step);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeRegex(Pattern pattern);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeClass(String qualifiedName, URI moduleUri);
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeTypeAlias(String qualifiedName, URI moduleUri);
+
+  protected Object doDecodeFunction() {
+    throw new DecodeException("Cannot decode Function value");
+  }
+
+  protected abstract Object doDecodeBytes(byte[] bytes);
+
+  private Object doDecode() throws IOException {
+    if (!unpacker.hasNext()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected EOF");
+    }
+
+    return switch (unpacker.getNextFormat().getValueType()) {
+      // primitives
+      case NIL -> {
+        unpacker.unpackNil();
+        yield doDecodeNull();
+      }
+      case STRING -> unpacker.unpackString();
+      case INTEGER -> unpacker.unpackLong();
+      case BOOLEAN -> unpacker.unpackBoolean();
+      case FLOAT -> unpacker.unpackDouble();
+      // non-primitive
+      case ARRAY -> decodeNonPrimitive();
+      // things we should never see outside a non-primitive
+      case BINARY -> throw new DecodeException("Unexpected msgpack bin value");
+      case MAP -> throw new DecodeException("Unexpected msgpack map value");
+      case EXTENSION -> throw new DecodeException("Unexpected msgpack ext value");
+    };
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeNonPrimitive() throws IOException {
+    var len = unpacker.unpackArrayHeader();
+    if (len < 1) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected empty object array value");
+    }
+
+    var codeInt = unpacker.unpackInt();
+    var code = PklBinaryCode.fromInt(codeInt);
+    if (code == null) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unrecognized code 0x%x", (byte) codeInt);
+    }
+
+    return switch (code) {
+      case OBJECT -> decodeObject(len);
+      case MAP -> decodeMap(len);
+      case MAPPING -> decodeMapping(len);
+      case LIST -> decodeList(len);
+      case LISTING -> decodeListing(len);
+      case SET -> decodeSet(len);
+      case DURATION -> decodeDuration(len);
+      case DATASIZE -> decodeDataSize(len);
+      case PAIR -> decodePair(len);
+      case INTSEQ -> decodeIntSeq(len);
+      case REGEX -> decodeRegex(len);
+      case CLASS -> decodeClass(len);
+      case TYPEALIAS -> decodeTypeAlias(len);
+      case FUNCTION -> decodeFunction(len);
+      case BYTES -> decodeBytes(len);
+      default -> throw new DecodeException("Unrecognized object code %s", code);
+    };
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeObject(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.OBJECT, len, 3);
+    currPath.push("'object");
+
+    var className = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (className.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank object class name");
+    }
+    var classModuleUriString = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (classModuleUriString.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank object module URI");
+    }
+    var classModuleUri = URI.create(classModuleUriString);
+
+    var result =
+        doDecodeObject(
+            className, classModuleUri, new ObjectDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackArrayHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 4);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeMap(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.MAP, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'map");
+    var result = doDecodeMap(new MapDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackMapHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeMapping(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.MAPPING, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'mapping");
+    var result = doDecodeMapping(new MapDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackMapHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeList(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.LIST, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'list");
+    var result = doDecodeList(new CollectionDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackArrayHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeListing(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.LISTING, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'listing");
+    var result = doDecodeListing(new CollectionDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackArrayHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeSet(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.SET, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'set");
+    var result = doDecodeSet(new CollectionDecodeIterator(unpacker.unpackArrayHeader()));
+    currPath.pop();
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeDuration(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.DURATION, len, 2);
+    currPath.push("'duration");
+    var durationValue = unpacker.unpackDouble();
+    var rawDurationUnit = unpacker.unpackString();
+    var durationUnit = DurationUnit.parse(rawDurationUnit);
+    if (durationUnit == null) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Invalid Duration unit `%s`", rawDurationUnit);
+    }
+    var result = doDecodeDuration(durationValue, durationUnit);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 3);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeDataSize(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.DATASIZE, len, 2);
+    currPath.push("'datasize");
+    var dataSizeValue = unpacker.unpackDouble();
+    var rawDataSizeUnit = unpacker.unpackString();
+    var dataSizeUnit = DataSizeUnit.parse(rawDataSizeUnit);
+    if (dataSizeUnit == null) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Invalid DataSize unit `%s`", rawDataSizeUnit);
+    }
+    var result = doDecodeDataSize(dataSizeValue, dataSizeUnit);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 3);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodePair(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.PAIR, len, 2);
+    currPath.push("'pair");
+    currPath.push("'first");
+    var first = doDecode();
+    currPath.pop();
+    currPath.push("'second");
+    var second = doDecode();
+    currPath.pop();
+    var result = doDecodePair(first, second);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 3);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeIntSeq(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.INTSEQ, len, 3);
+    currPath.push("'intseq");
+    var start = unpacker.unpackLong();
+    var end = unpacker.unpackLong();
+    var step = unpacker.unpackLong();
+    var result = doDecodeIntSeq(start, end, step);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 4);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeRegex(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.REGEX, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'regex");
+    var result = doDecodeRegex(Pattern.compile(unpacker.unpackString()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeClass(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.CLASS, len, 2);
+    currPath.push("'class");
+
+    var name = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (name.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank class name");
+    }
+    var moduleUriString = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (moduleUriString.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank class module URI");
+    }
+    var moduleUri = URI.create(moduleUriString);
+
+    var result = doDecodeClass(name, moduleUri);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 3);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeTypeAlias(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.TYPEALIAS, len, 2);
+    currPath.push("'typealias");
+
+    var name = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (name.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank typealias name");
+    }
+    var moduleUriString = unpacker.unpackString();
+    if (moduleUriString.isBlank()) {
+      throw new DecodeException("Unexpected blank typealias module URI");
+    }
+    var moduleUri = URI.create(moduleUriString);
+
+    var result = doDecodeTypeAlias(name, moduleUri);
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 3);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeFunction(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.FUNCTION, len, 0);
+    currPath.push("'function");
+    var result = doDecodeFunction();
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 1);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private Object decodeBytes(int len) throws IOException {
+    assertLength(PklBinaryCode.BYTES, len, 1);
+    currPath.push("'bytes");
+    var result = doDecodeBytes(unpacker.readPayload(unpacker.unpackBinaryHeader()));
+    unpacker.skipValue(len - 2);
+    currPath.pop();
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  // some silly iterator classes because next() needs to handle IOException
+
+  protected abstract class DecodeIterator<T> implements Iterator<T> {
+    private final int size;
+    private int idx = 0;
+
+    DecodeIterator(int size) {
+      this.size = size;
+    }
+
+    public int getSize() {
+      return size;
+    }
+
+    public boolean hasNext() {
+      return idx < size;
+    }
+
+    public T next() {
+      currPath.push(idx);
+      try {
+        return getNext();
+      } catch (IOException e) {
+        throw doIOFail(e);
+      } finally {
+        currPath.pop();
+        idx++;
+      }
+    }
+
+    abstract T getNext() throws IOException;
+  }
+
+  protected class ObjectDecodeIterator extends DecodeIterator<DecodedObjectMember> {
+    ObjectDecodeIterator(int size) {
+      super(size);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    DecodedObjectMember getNext() throws IOException {
+      var memberLen = unpacker.unpackArrayHeader();
+      if (memberLen != 3) {
+        throw new DecodeException("Expected 3 fields in object member, found %d", memberLen);
+      }
+      var memberCodeInt = unpacker.unpackInt();
+      var memberCode = PklBinaryCode.fromInt(memberCodeInt);
+      if (memberCode == null) {
+        throw new DecodeException("Unrecognized code 0x%x", (byte) memberCodeInt);
+      }
+      DecodedObjectMember member;
+      switch (memberCode) {
+        case PROPERTY -> {
+          var propertyName = unpacker.unpackString();
+          currPath.push(propertyName);
+          member = new DecodedObjectMember(memberCode, propertyName, doDecode());
+        }
+        case ENTRY -> {
+          var entryKey = doDecode();
+          currPath.push(entryKey);
+          member = new DecodedObjectMember(memberCode, entryKey, doDecode());
+        }
+        case ELEMENT -> {
+          var elementIndex = unpacker.unpackLong();
+          currPath.push(elementIndex);
+          member = new DecodedObjectMember(memberCode, elementIndex, doDecode());
+        }
+        default -> throw new DecodeException("Unrecognized member code %s", memberCode);
+      }
+      currPath.pop();
+      return member;
+    }
+  }
+
+  protected class CollectionDecodeIterator extends DecodeIterator<Object> {
+    CollectionDecodeIterator(int size) {
+      super(size);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    Object getNext() throws IOException {
+      return doDecode();
+    }
+  }
+
+  protected class MapDecodeIterator extends DecodeIterator<Pair<Object, Object>> {
+    MapDecodeIterator(int size) {
+      super(size);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    Pair<Object, Object> getNext() throws IOException {
+      var key = doDecode();
+      currPath.push(key);
+      var val = doDecode();
+      currPath.pop();
+      return new Pair<>(key, val);
+    }
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/PklBinaryCode.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/PklBinaryCode.java
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+/*
+ * Copyright © 2025 Apple Inc. and the Pkl project authors. All rights reserved.
+ *
+ * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+ * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+ * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+ *
+ *     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+ *
+ * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+ * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+ * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+ * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+ * limitations under the License.
+ */
+package org.pkl.core.util.pklbinary;
+
+import org.pkl.core.util.Nullable;
+
+public enum PklBinaryCode {
+  OBJECT((byte) 0x01),
+  MAP((byte) 0x02),
+  MAPPING((byte) 0x03),
+  LIST((byte) 0x04),
+  LISTING((byte) 0x05),
+  SET((byte) 0x06),
+  DURATION((byte) 0x07),
+  DATASIZE((byte) 0x08),
+  PAIR((byte) 0x09),
+  INTSEQ((byte) 0x0A),
+  REGEX((byte) 0x0B),
+  CLASS((byte) 0x0C),
+  TYPEALIAS((byte) 0x0D),
+  FUNCTION((byte) 0x0E),
+  BYTES((byte) 0x0F),
+
+  PROPERTY((byte) 0x10),
+  ENTRY((byte) 0x11),
+  ELEMENT((byte) 0x12);
+
+  private final byte code;
+
+  PklBinaryCode(byte code) {
+    this.code = code;
+  }
+
+  public byte getCode() {
+    return code;
+  }
+
+  public static @Nullable PklBinaryCode fromInt(int value) {
+    return switch (value) {
+      case 0x01 -> PklBinaryCode.OBJECT;
+      case 0x02 -> PklBinaryCode.MAP;
+      case 0x03 -> PklBinaryCode.MAPPING;
+      case 0x04 -> PklBinaryCode.LIST;
+      case 0x05 -> PklBinaryCode.LISTING;
+      case 0x06 -> PklBinaryCode.SET;
+      case 0x07 -> PklBinaryCode.DURATION;
+      case 0x08 -> PklBinaryCode.DATASIZE;
+      case 0x09 -> PklBinaryCode.PAIR;
+      case 0x0A -> PklBinaryCode.INTSEQ;
+      case 0x0B -> PklBinaryCode.REGEX;
+      case 0x0C -> PklBinaryCode.CLASS;
+      case 0x0D -> PklBinaryCode.TYPEALIAS;
+      case 0x0E -> PklBinaryCode.FUNCTION;
+      case 0x0F -> PklBinaryCode.BYTES;
+
+      case 0x10 -> PklBinaryCode.PROPERTY;
+      case 0x11 -> PklBinaryCode.ENTRY;
+      case 0x12 -> PklBinaryCode.ELEMENT;
+      default -> null;
+    };
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/package-info.java
+++ b/pkl-core/src/main/java/org/pkl/core/util/pklbinary/package-info.java
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+@NonnullByDefault
+package org.pkl.core.util.pklbinary;
+
+import org.pkl.core.util.NonnullByDefault;
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+open module encoding1
+
+import "pkl:pklbinary"
+import "pkl:base"
+
+class Foo {
+  dynamic: Dynamic = new {
+    hello = "world"
+    ["hello"] = "world"
+    "hello world"
+  }
+  string: String = "foo"
+  map = Map("foo", "bar")
+  mapping: Mapping = new { ["foo"] = "bar" }
+  list = List("foo", "bar")
+  listing: Listing = new { "foo"; 0 }
+  set = Set("foo", "bar")
+  duration = 123.h
+  dataSize = 123.gib
+  pair = Pair("foo", "bar")
+  intSeq = IntSeq(123, 456)
+  regex = Regex("foo.*")
+  func: ((String, Int) -> Boolean)? =
+    (a, b) -> a.sha256Int + b % 2 == 0
+  bytes = Bytes(0x01, 0x02, 0x03)
+  moduleClass: Class
+  baseModuleClass: Class = base.getClass()
+  pklbinaryModuleClass: Class = pklbinary.getClass()
+  stdlibClass: Class = PcfRenderer
+  someClass: Class = Foo
+  stdlibTypealias: TypeAlias = UInt 
+  someTypealias: TypeAlias = Bar
+  something: Any = new PcfRenderer {} // a non-external class from pkl:base
+}
+
+typealias Bar = Mapping<String, String>
+
+classInstance: Foo = new {
+  moduleClass = Map(true, module.getClass())[true]
+}
+
+hidden noFunc: Foo = (classInstance) { func = null }
+
+hidden encoded: Bytes = new pklbinary.Renderer {}.renderValue(noFunc)
+
+output {
+  bytes = encoded
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/basic.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/basic.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1 = "bar"
 res2 = ""
 res3 = 1
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/classes.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/classes.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 module com.foo.bar.MyModule

+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 class Person {
  firstName: String
  lastName: String
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/datasize.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/datasize.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1: DataSize = 1.b
 res2: DataSize = 2.kb
 res3: DataSize = 3.kib
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/duration.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/duration.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1 = 1.ns
 res2 = 2.us
 res3 = 3.ms
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/intseq.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/intseq.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,2 +1,4 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1 = IntSeq(1, 3)
 res2 = IntSeq(1, 4).step(5)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/list.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/list.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1: List<Int> = List(1, 3, 5, 7)
 res2: Listing<Int> = new { 2; 4; 6; 8 }
 res3: List<Int> = List()
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/map.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/map.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1: Map = Map("foo", 1, "bar", 2)
 res2: Mapping = new {
  ["foo"] = 1
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/pair.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/pair.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,2 +1,4 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1 = Pair(1, 2)
 res2 = Pair("foo", "bar")
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/regex.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/regex.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1 = Regex("abc")
 res2 = Regex("")
 res3 = Regex("(?m)^abc$")
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/set.msgpack.yaml.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinary/set.msgpack.yaml.pkl
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+extends ".../pklbinaryTest.pkl"
+
 res1: Set<Int> = Set(1, 3, 5, 7)
 res2: Set<Int> = Set()
 res3: Set<Any> = Set(1, true, "", null)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinaryTest.pkl
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/input/pklbinaryTest.pkl
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+open module pklbinaryTest
+
+import "pkl:pklbinary"
+
+output {
+  // ensure no output file written for this specific module, only children that add properties
+  when (module.toMap().isEmpty) {
+    text = ""
+  } else {
+    value = if (module.toMap().isEmpty) "" else module
+    renderer = new pklbinary.Renderer {}
+  }
+}
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/jsonRenderer8.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/jsonRenderer8.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#JsonRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/jsonRend

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/jsonnetRenderer7.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/jsonnetRenderer7.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.jsonnet#Renderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/jsonnetRe

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pListRenderer7.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pListRenderer7.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#PListRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pListRe

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pcfRenderer8.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pcfRenderer8.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#PcfRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pcfRender

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,190 @@
+- 1
+- 'encoding1#Foo'
+- 'file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl'
+- 
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'dynamic'
+    - 
+      - 1
+      - 'Dynamic'
+      - 'pkl:base'
+      - 
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'hello'
+          - 'world'
+        - 
+          - 17
+          - 'hello'
+          - 'world'
+        - 
+          - 18
+          - 0
+          - 'hello world'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'string'
+    - 'foo'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'map'
+    - 
+      - 2
+      - 
+        'foo': 'bar'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'mapping'
+    - 
+      - 3
+      - 
+        'foo': 'bar'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'list'
+    - 
+      - 4
+      - 
+        - 'foo'
+        - 'bar'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'listing'
+    - 
+      - 5
+      - 
+        - 'foo'
+        - 0
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'set'
+    - 
+      - 6
+      - 
+        - 'foo'
+        - 'bar'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'duration'
+    - 
+      - 7
+      - 123.0
+      - 'h'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'dataSize'
+    - 
+      - 8
+      - 123.0
+      - 'gib'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'pair'
+    - 
+      - 9
+      - 'foo'
+      - 'bar'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'intSeq'
+    - 
+      - 10
+      - 123
+      - 456
+      - 1
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'regex'
+    - 
+      - 11
+      - 'foo.*'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'func'
+    - null
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'bytes'
+    - 
+      - 15
+      - !!binary 'AQID'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'moduleClass'
+    - 
+      - 12
+      - 'encoding1'
+      - 'file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'baseModuleClass'
+    - 
+      - 12
+      - 'ModuleClass'
+      - 'pkl:base'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'pklbinaryModuleClass'
+    - 
+      - 12
+      - 'pkl.pklbinary'
+      - 'pkl:pklbinary'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'stdlibClass'
+    - 
+      - 12
+      - 'PcfRenderer'
+      - 'pkl:base'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'someClass'
+    - 
+      - 12
+      - 'encoding1#Foo'
+      - 'file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'stdlibTypealias'
+    - 
+      - 13
+      - 'UInt'
+      - 'pkl:base'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'someTypealias'
+    - 
+      - 13
+      - 'encoding1#Bar'
+      - 'file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pklbinary1.msgpack.yaml.pkl'
+  - 
+    - 16
+    - 'something'
+    - 
+      - 1
+      - 'PcfRenderer'
+      - 'pkl:base'
+      - 
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'converters'
+          - 
+            - 3
+            - {}
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'extension'
+          - 'pcf'
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'indent'
+          - '  '
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'omitNullProperties'
+          - false
+        - 
+          - 16
+          - 'useCustomStringDelimiters'
+          - false
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer10.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer10.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at propertiesRenderer10.properties#foo (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/propertie

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer11.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer11.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#PropertiesRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/pr

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer4.pcf
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/propertiesRenderer4.pcf
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ res7 = "Cannot render value of type `DataSize` as Properties. Value: 1.mb"
 res8 = "Cannot render value of type `List` as Properties. Value: List(\"pigeon\", \"parrot\")"
 res9 = "Cannot render value of type `Set` as Properties. Value: Set(\"pigeon\", \"parrot\")"
 res10 = "Cannot render value of type `Map` as Properties. Value: Map(\"name\", \"pigeon\", \"age\", 42)"
-res11 = "Cannot render value of type `Listing` as Properties. Value: new Listing { ?; ? }"
+res11 = "Cannot render value of type `Listing` as Properties. Value: new Listing { \"pigeon\"; \"parrot\" }"
 res12 = "Cannot render value of type `Mapping` as Properties. Value: new Mapping { [\"name\"] = ?; [\"age\"] = ? }"
 res13 = "Cannot render value of type `Dynamic` as Properties. Value: new Dynamic { name = ?; age = ? }"
 res14 = "Cannot render value of type `propertiesRenderer4#Person` as Properties. Value: new Person { name = ?; age = ? }"
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/reflectedDeclaration.pcf
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/reflectedDeclaration.pcf
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/xmlRenderer8.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/xmlRenderer8.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.xml#Renderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/xmlRenderer8.

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/xmlRendererInline3.xml
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/xmlRendererInline3.xml
@@ -4,6 +4,6 @@
    <name>Pigeon</name>
    <age>42</age>
  </pigeon2>
-  <res2>`xml.Element` is not supported here. Value: new Dynamic { _isXmlElement = true; name = ?; attributes = ?; isBlockFormat =...</res2>
-  <res3>`xml.Inline` is not supported here. Value: new Inline { value = ? }</res3>
+  <res2>`xml.Element` is not supported here. Value: new Dynamic { _isXmlElement = true; name = &quot;pigeon2&quot;; attributes {}; isBlockF...</res2>
+  <res3>`xml.Inline` is not supported here. Value: new Inline { value { name = ?; age = ? } }</res3>
 </root>
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/yamlRenderer7.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/api/yamlRenderer7.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#YamlRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/api/yamlRend

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/basic/exceptions.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/basic/exceptions.err
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ x | bar = throw("Something went wrong")
          ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at exceptions#foo.bar (file:///$snippetsDir/input/basic/exceptions.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/class3.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/class3.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at class3#person (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/class3.pkl)
 Did you mean any of the following?
 address

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/constraints5.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/constraints5.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ xx | max = 3
           ^
 at constraints5#res2.max (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/constraints5.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/inheritanceError1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/inheritanceError1.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at inheritanceError1#Derived (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/inheritanceErro
 By default, classes are closed for extension.
 To make a class extensible, add an `open` modifier: `open class MyClass { ... }`

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/invalidInstantiation1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/invalidInstantiation1.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ Examples:
 * `123` uses literal syntax to create an instance of class `Int`.
 * `Pair(1, 2)` uses the `Pair()` constructor method to create an instance of class `Pair`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/invalidInstantiation2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/invalidInstantiation2.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at invalidInstantiation2#res1 (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/invalidInstant
 Abstract classes cannot be instantiated.
 Instead, instantiate a concrete subclass.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorAlias.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorAlias.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ xx | a = "other"
         ^^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorAlias#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorAlias.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent1.err
@@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ x | a = List(1, 3.14, 2)
        ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorDifferent1#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent1.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent2.err
@@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ x | a = List(1, 2, 3)
        ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorDifferent2#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorDifferent2.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorMultipleAliases.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorMultipleAliases.err
@@ -18,10 +18,10 @@ x | res1: Alias1|Alias2 = new Dynamic { }
                          ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorMultipleAliases#res1 (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorMultipleAliases.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorNested.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorNested.err
@@ -18,10 +18,10 @@ x | a = Map(
        ^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorNested#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorNested.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorSimple.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorSimple.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ x | a = 42
        ^^
 at unionTypesErrorSimple#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorSimple.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorString1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorString1.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ x | a = "foox"
        ^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorString1#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorString1.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorString2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/unionTypesErrorString2.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ xx | a = "other"
         ^^^^^^^
 at unionTypesErrorString2#res1.a (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/unionTypesErrorString2.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType1.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ x | name = 42
           ^^
 at wrongType1#pigeon.name (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/wrongType1.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType2.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ x | age = "42"
          ^^^^
 at wrongType2#pigeon.age (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/wrongType2.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType3.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType3.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ xx | address = "Howdy St."
               ^^^^^^^^^^^
 at wrongType3#person.address (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/wrongType3.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType4.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType4.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ xx | street = 4.gb
              ^^^^
 at wrongType4#person.address.street (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/wrongType4.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType6.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/classes/wrongType6.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ x | names: List<String>(!isEmpty)
    ^^^^^
 at wrongType6#Person.names (file:///$snippetsDir/input/classes/wrongType6.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeImportsCannotFindModule.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeImportsCannotFindModule.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ x | res = analyze.importGraph(Set(reflect.Module(cannotFindModule).uri))
          ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at analyzeImportsCannotFindModule#res (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/analyzeImportsCannotFindModule.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeImportsInvalidGlob.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeImportsInvalidGlob.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ x | res = analyze.importGraph(Set(reflect.Module(invalidGlob).uri))
                                                 ^^^^^^^^^^^
 at analyzeImportsInvalidGlob#res (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/analyzeImportsInvalidGlob.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeInvalidModuleUri.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeInvalidModuleUri.err
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ at analyzeInvalidModuleUri#result (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/analyzeInva

 Illegal character in path at index 3: foo <>

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeRelativeModuleUri.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/analyzeRelativeModuleUri.err
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ x | result = analyze.importGraph(Set("foo.pkl"))
             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at analyzeRelativeModuleUri#result (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/analyzeRelativeModuleUri.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/anyConverterError.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/anyConverterError.err
@@ -2,12 +2,12 @@
 The top-level value of a Pcf document must have type `Typed` or `Dynamic`, but got type `String`.
 Value: "anyConverterError"

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

 This value was converted during rendering. Previous: new ModuleClass {}. After: "anyConverterError".

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAmendFixedProperty1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAmendFixedProperty1.err
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ xx | bird {
     ^^^^
 at cannotAmendFixedProperty1#n (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotAmendFixedProperty1.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty1.err
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@ x | name = _name
    ^^^^
 at cannotAssignFixedProperty1#p (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty1.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty3.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty3.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ x | ...new Dynamic { name = "Osprey" }
                     ^^^^
 at cannotAssignFixedProperty3#p.name (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotAssignFixedProperty3.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignToNothing.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotAssignToNothing.err
@@ -12,10 +12,10 @@ x | value: nothing = "foo"
                     ^^^^^
 at cannotAssignToNothing#value (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotAssignToNothing.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotChangeFixed1.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotChangeFixed1.err
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ at cannotChangeFixed1#Dog (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotChangeFixed1.

 Property `name` must be declared fixed, because it overrides a fixed property on parent class `cannotChangeFixed1#Animal`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotChangeFixed2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotChangeFixed2.err
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ at cannotChangeFixed2#Dog (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotChangeFixed2.

 Property `name` cannot be declared fixed, because it overrides a non-fixed property on parent class `cannotChangeFixed2#Animal`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotFindMapKey.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotFindMapKey.err
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@ Did you mean any of the following?
 "foyo"
 "xfoo"

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotFindStdLibModule.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotFindStdLibModule.err
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ pkl:EvaluatorSettings
 pkl:json
 pkl:jsonnet
 pkl:math
+pkl:pklbinary
 pkl:platform
 pkl:Project
 pkl:protobuf
@@ -31,10 +32,10 @@ x | res1 = nonExisting.bar
           ^^^^^^^^^^^
 at cannotFindStdLibModule#res1 (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannotFindStdLibModule.pkl)

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotInstantiateAbstractModule.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotInstantiateAbstractModule.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at cannotInstantiateAbstractModule#res1 (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/canno
 Abstract classes cannot be instantiated.
 Instead, instantiate a concrete subclass.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotRenderMixin.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/cannotRenderMixin.err
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ at pkl.base#PcfRenderer.renderDocument (file:///$snippetsDir/input/errors/cannot

 Consider adding a converter to `output.converters`.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constAnnotation.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constAnnotation.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ To fix, do either of:
 1. Add modifier `const` to method `f1`
 2. Self-import this module, and reference this method from the import.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constAnnotation2.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constAnnotation2.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ To fix, do either of:
 1. Add modifier `const` to property `top`
 2. Self-import this module, and reference this property from the import.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constClassBody.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constClassBody.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ To fix, do either of:
 1. Add modifier `const` to property `notConst`
 2. Self-import this module, and reference this property from the import.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constExplicitThis.err
+++ b/pkl-core/src/test/files/LanguageSnippetTests/output/errors/const/constExplicitThis.err
@@ -9,10 +9,10 @@ To fix, do either of:
 1. Add modifier `const` to property `a`
 2. Self-import this module, and reference this property from the import.

-xxx | text = renderer.renderDocument(value)
-             ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+xxx | renderer.renderDocument(value)
+      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.text (pkl:base)

-xxx | bytes = text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
-              ^^^^
+xxx | if (renderer is BytesRenderer) renderer.renderDocument(value) else text.encodeToBytes("UTF-8")
+                                                                         ^^^^
 at pkl.base#Module.output.bytes (pkl:base)
--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More